Introduction to Zoology - The old and modern classification system of animals - The animal cell - Study of cell organelles: plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum - Continuation of organelles: Golgi bodies, mitochondria, ribosomes - Continuation of organelles: cell wall, plastids Cell division - Animal tissues: structure, types, and function - Continuation of animal tissues Reproduction in animals, stages of gamete formation, reproductive hormones Introduction to Genetics

Concept of life sciences, its branches, and characteristics of life - Cell: its size, shape, and divisions: prokaryotic and eukaryotic - Plant cell: its components - Plant tissues: types and functions - External structure of flowering plants: shoot and root systems - Internal structure of flowering plants: root system - Internal structure of flowering plants: stem - Internal structure of flowering plants: leaves and flowers - Water relations in plants and absorption - Water relations in plants: ascent of sap and transpiration - Using the microscope - Studying models and slides of plant cells and tissues

Classification of animals and the history of their evolution - Study of the classification of the animal kingdom - Introduction to the division of animal organisms – Phylum Protozoa: their forms, structure, characteristics, feeding methods, and reproduction - Phylum Coelenterata and their characteristics - Phylum Mollusca and their characteristics - Phylum Annelida and their characteristics - Phylum Nematoda and their characteristics - Phylum Platyhelminthes and their characteristics - Phylum Echinodermata and their characteristics - Phylum Arthropoda and their characteristics - Phylum Chordata and their characteristics

Introduction to Botany 2 - Characteristics of living organisms and the basics of their classification - Viruses: definition, forms, structure, and types - Methods of virus reproduction and the diseases they cause - Kingdom of Prokaryotes: bacteria, their shapes, reproduction, nutrition methods, and some examples - Kingdom Protista: forms, structure, types, reproduction methods, and importance - Kingdom Fungi: types, structure, and importance - Bryophytes: general characteristics, structure, reproduction methods, and importance - Pteridophytes: general characteristics, structure, reproduction methods, and importance, with an illustrative example - Seed plants: Gymnosperms - Angiosperms

General introduction to the study of Archegoniates and comparative morphology. - General characteristics of archegoniates - Classification of archegoniates - Study of bryophyte plants (their characteristics - classification - examples - life cycle - economic importance) - Study of pteridophyte plants (their characteristics - classification - examples - life cycle) - Ferns (classification - characteristics - examples - life cycle - economic importance) - Seed plants (definition - characteristics - classification - importance in terms of evolution - economic importance) - Gymnosperms (pine) - Angiosperms (definition - characteristics - classification - examples - importance in terms of evolution - economic importance) - Monocotyledonous plants - Dicotyledonous plants

Introduction to Plant Anatomy and the Plant Body, including the definition of anatomy and its relation to other sciences - A detailed study of all living and non-living contents of the plant cell - Plant tissues (meristematic or primary, and permanent) - Formation of the plant body in higher plants as well as plant body organs (root, stem, leaf, flower) - Connective tissues, the most important of which is the epidermis (stomata, lenticels, and appendages) - Conductive tissues, the most important of which are wood, bark, and vascular bundles - Differences between tissues of gymnosperms and angiosperms - Internal structure of root, stem, and leaf in dicots and monocots - Secondary growth, secondary tissues, annual rings, leaf shedding, heartwood and sapwood - Cork cambium, cork, lenticular spaces.

Introduction to microbiology, understanding the concept of microbiology and its types - types of microscopes and their uses - the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms - anatomical structure of bacteria - bacterial growth curve - spore formation in some types of bacteria - Gram staining - capsule staining and spore staining - sterilization and its types - disinfection and its types - temperature range for different types of bacteria - pH and its variation as one of the requirements for bacterial growth

General introduction to cell biology - Organic compounds of the cell - The most important chemical elements naturally present in the cell - Study of cellular organelles: cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria - Cell wall and plastids - Vital functions of the cell - Cell shape and size and nuclear structure - Study of genetic structures in the cell - Differences between plant and animal cells

The concept of ecology, its origin, development, and scope - the relationship of ecology with other sciences - components of the ecosystem (living and non-living factors) - types of ecosystems and their balance - energy flow in ecosystems and food chains - ecological productivity, its types, and how to calculate it in ecosystems - fast element cycles: water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide - slow element cycles: nitrogen - sedimentary element cycles: sulfur and phosphorus - climatic factors and the distribution of living organisms - atmospheric factors and their impact on the distribution of living organisms - diversity of biological communities (aquatic and terrestrial environments)

General Introduction to Algae - Definition of Phycology - Its Origin - Development and Its Relationship with Other Sciences in the Field of Microbiology - The Status of Algae in the Plant Kingdom - Forms and Sizes (Thallus Structure) and Places of Algae Occurrence According to Different Cell Structures - Algal Cell Structure - Types of Algal Cells - Components of the Algal Cell - Plastids in Algae - Photosynthetic Pigments - Flagella - Reproduction in Algae - Means, Methods, and Types of Reproduction - Growth Methods in Algae - Classification of Algae - Study of Different Algal Divisions with Examples Illustrating Each Division and Their Life Cycle - General Economic Importance of Algae

Nuclear material in bacteria - Plasmids - Genetic exchange in bacteria - Bacterial division - Artificial division of bacteria - Metabolic reactions in bacteria - Types of metabolic enzymes in bacteria - External morphology of bacteria - Normal bacteria in the body - Pathogenicity and disease-causing ability

The essential aspects of cell structure and its organelles, the nucleus and chromatin - chromosomes, their types, and observable characteristics - the best methods for obtaining chromosomes - cell division - cellular respiration - cell receptors - protein biosynthesis - the processes of transcription and translation and the difference between them - mechanisms of simple binary fission and splitting and the difference between them - the structure of the nucleus in prokaryotes - chromatin material and genetic pigments

Plant ecology: concept, origin, and its relationship with other sciences - Components of the ecosystem and their relationship with plants - Biotic factors and their mutual relationship with plants - Abiotic factors (soil) and their relationship with plants - Climatic factors (precipitation) and their relationship with plants - Non-climatic factors (temperature) and their relationship with plants - Non-climatic factors (light) and their relationship with plants - Non-climatic factors (wind) and their relationship with plants - Site factors (topography) and their relationship with plants - Vegetation cover: types, origin, and development - Plant regions of the world - Field surveys

General Introduction to Algae - Introduction to Phycology - Study of Cyanobacteria and their characteristics and habitat - Study of the Green Algae division and how to benefit from them - Study of Brown Algae and the differences from previous algae - Study of the Golden Algae division and practical applications of algae - Calcareous Algae and distinguishing them from previous divisions - Study of Red Algae, their features and characteristics, and how to benefit from them - General Economic Importance of Algae

General introduction to the science of plant taxonomy - The relationship of other plant sciences to plant taxonomy - The history, stages, and eras through which taxonomy has passed and the most important plant taxonomists - The most important definitions and terms in plant taxonomy, including: its definition – terms specific to plant taxonomy such as definition and nomenclature - diagnostic and dichotomous keys. - Classification of the plant kingdom – taxonomic categories - plant nomenclature, including the history of naming and the rules and systems used in writing scientific names - Evolution of plant classification systems, including: artificial classification, natural classification, evolutionary classification, as well as modern classification – Studying herbaria and how to collect and preserve plants within herbaria, methods of identifying plants using botanical keys - Study of the flower, including (flower – floral leaf appendages – flower structure – corolla – stamen – pistil) - Detailed study of floral leaves such as calyx, corolla, stamen, and pistil in terms of structure and function and the relationship of these parts to floral taxonomy - Floral quadrat - placentation - types of ovules - arrangement of floral whorls on the receptacle - floral symmetry - floral orientation - floral diagram - section.Flower morphology – the floral formula (equation) – Pollination and fertilization of flowering plants – How ovules and the embryo sac of flowering plants are formed, as well as how pollen grains are formed – How the embryo, endosperm, and seed of flowering plants are formed and their role in plant classification – Inflorescences (definition – types) – Fruits (definition – function – types) and their role in floral classification – Distribution of fruits and seeds – Study of some flowering plant families of dicotyledons and monocotyledons.

Water Microbiology - Distribution of microorganisms in water - Factors that promote the presence of microbes in water and waterborne diseases - Air Microbiology - Isolation and counting of microbes in the air - Air sterilization - Milk and Dairy Microbiology - Diseases transmitted through milk - Refrigeration and sterilization methods - Food Microbiology - Cleaning, storage, and preservation methods for food - Industrial Microbiology -- Petroleum Microbiology

Introduction to genetics and the study of Mendelian inheritance - Mendel's First Law - Mendel's Second Law - Test cross - Backcross - Inheritance of blood groups - Cases of dominance - Cellular inheritance - Introduction to chromosomes - Chromosomal changes - Probabilities - Chi-square

A general introduction to the science of plant taxonomy - The relationship of other plant sciences to plant taxonomy - The history, stages, and eras that plant taxonomy has gone through, and the most important taxonomists. - The most important definitions and key terms in plant taxonomy - Classification of the plant kingdom and the systems used in writing scientific names. Sources for identifying plants (herbarium, botanical garden, library) - Methods of identifying plants through comparison and botanical keys - Divisional guides - Morphological guides - Cytological guides - Genetic guides - Anatomical guides - Chemical guides - Cytological and genetic guides - Environmental guides and pollen guides - Flora studies and the use of the flora handbook.

Microbial Environment: - Soil as a medium for microbes - Bacteria – Actinomycetes – Fungi – Algae – Protozoa. - Carbon Cycle: - Physiological aspects of microbes -- Decomposition of organic matter – Cellulose-degrading microbes – Hydrocarbon decomposition - Nitrogen Cycle: - Mineralization and nitrogen assimilation – Nitrification – Nitrogen release - Nitrogen fixation symbiotically – Atmospheric nitrogen fixation – Symbiotically. - Environmental Interactions: - Interactions between species – Rhizosphere microbes – Pesticides - Mineral element transformations: - Microbial transformations of phosphorus - Microbial transformations of sulfur – Microbial transformations of iron

Introduction to Plant Physiology. The Plant Cell - Water Relations of the Plant Cell - The Ideal Plant Cell (Chemical and Physical Properties of the Cytoplasm and Its Chemical Composition) - Solution Systems (True Solutions – Suspensions – Emulsions – Colloids). General Properties of Colloids - Acids, Bases, and Salts - Osmosis: Definition of Osmosis – Factors Affecting Osmosis – Osmotic Pressure. Plasmolysis - Movement of Water Between Cells - Water Relations in Plants - Water Absorption - Ascent of Sap - Transpiration and the Stomatal System – Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata - Nutrient Elements Required by Plants - Major Nutrients - Minor Nutrients

A general introduction to molecular biology - Nucleic acids DNA (structure and composition of DNA, the double helix theory of DNA, physical properties) RNA (structure and composition of RNA, its types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, RNA properties - the difference between DNA & RNA). - The main features that distinguish a DNA molecule in eukaryotes from that in prokaryotes - Organization of nitrogenous base sequences in eukaryotic DNA - Transcription process - Translation process, Genetic Code - Repetitive DNA sequences in eukaryotes - Terminal sequences and autonomously replicating sequences - DNA Replication - Gene Regulation - Gene Mutations.

Introduction to Mycology - Definition of Fungi – History of Mycology – General Characteristics of Fungi - Study of the General Traits of Fungi - Reproduction in Fungi - Classification of Fungi, including the study of the following: Slime Fungi – Cellular Slime Molds / True Slime Molds - True Fungi. General Traits – Phylum of Flagellated Fungi (Uniflagellate – Biflagellate) - Phylum of Non-flagellated Fungi (Zygomycota – Ascomycota – Basidiomycota) - Deuteromycota - Study of their General Characteristics - Classification of Deuteromycota - Importance of Fungi in the Economy and Their Relationship with Other Organisms.

Introduction including the wealth of Libya in plants and the past attempts made to prepare the Libyan flora. - A historical overview of the explorations related to the study of plants in Libya from 1703 to the present. - The geographical location and topography of Libya (location, area and population, terrain, climate, soil, water sources, vegetation distribution). - Study of Libyan natural plants (dividing Libya into three or four vegetation zones: coastal plains, mountainous region, desert wadis, oases). - Study of endemism in its types (ancient Paleoendemic, new Neoendemic, complete Holoendemic), causes of endemism, isolation factors, main centers of endemism in Libya. - Characteristics of Libyan flora, including all plant groups in Libya (Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons). - Study of rare and endangered plants with clarification of the most important rare plants in Libya. - Study of alien plants (clarifying the ways they entered Libya, understanding their harm and importance). - Study of plants used in traditional medicine. - Desertification in Libya, its causes and consequences.

Enzymes: Their history – characteristics – structure – naming – mechanism of action – factors affecting them – Enzymes: Methods of extraction and detection – importance of enzymes. Respiration and biochemical transformations (Krebs cycle – electron transport chain, etc. – types of respiration – respiratory quotient – respiration rate – factors affecting respiration). Photosynthesis: Plant pigments – light and dark reactions – Calvin cycle – metabolism in C4, C3, CAM plants – methods of measuring photosynthesis and factors affecting it. Photosynthesis: Plant pigments – light and dark reactions – Calvin cycle – auxins and gibberellins (discovery – presence and distribution in the plant – mechanism of action) – cytokinins and abscisic acid (discovery – presence and distribution in the plant – mechanism of action). Sensation and movement in plants, flowering, aging, and shedding. Dormancy in plants (buds – seeds).

The relationship of medical microbiology with other sciences - The most important chemical tests used in bacterial diagnosis - Types of culture media and methods of preparation - Genus Staphylococcus and its most important types - Genus Streptococcus and its most important types - Gram-positive bacilli - Spore-forming and non-spore-forming bacilli - Enteric Gram-negative bacilli - Escherichia bacteria - Genus Klebsiella, Salmonella, and Shigella - Genus Neisseria - Pulmonary tuberculosis bacteria - Genus Pseudomonas

Introduction and Historical Development of Plant Pathology - Economic Importance of Plant Diseases - Classification of Plant Diseases - Modes of Transmission and Spread of Plant Diseases - Infection Factors and Host Infection - Parasitic Plant Diseases - Fungal and Bacterial Diseases of Plants - Viral Diseases - Insects and Nematodes as Causes of Plant Diseases - Non-Parasitic Diseases and Environmental Conditions as Causes of Disease - Nutrient Excess or Deficiency and Its Effect on Plants - Soil Moisture and Its Impact on Growth - Soil pH and Its Relationship with Plant Diseases

Subject A Historical Overview of Virology - History and Scope of Virology - Evolution of Virology - General Characteristics of Viruses - Nomenclature and Classification of Viruses (Viral Groups) - Structure of Viruses and Modes of Replication - Transmission and Spread of Viruses in the Host - Viral Genetic Material as the Basis for Replication in the Host - Methods of Studying Viruses (Serological Methods, Plate Assay Methods, ELISA, and also PCR Technique) - Important Viral Hosts - Examples of Some Diseases in Humans, Animals, Plants, and Zoonotic Diseases - Immunity - Antibodies and Antigens - The Role of Viruses in Transforming Normal Cells into Cancerous Cells, Immune Response to Viruses, Interferons, Chemotherapy, Vaccination, and Immunization

Historical overview of medicinal fungi - Definition of medicinal fungi - Methods of fungal spread and pathogenicity. Fungal infections and immunity against them. Laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections - Classification of medicinal fungi - Pathogenicity of fungi - Virulence factors that help fungi cause disease. Pathogenic fungi and fungal infections with examples - Systemic infections - Superficial fungal infections (cutaneous) with examples. Superficial pathogenic fungi - Skin fungi - Subcutaneous fungi - Systemic fungi - Opportunistic fungi - Immunity and antifungal drugs - Mycotoxins - General characteristics of mycotoxins - Types of mycotoxins - Toxin secretion and fungal sensitization

Introduction to Biotechnology - Preparation of Animal and Plant Microscopic Samples -- Tissue Culture Technique Electron Microscope and Sample Preparation Methods for Microscope Examination - PCR and RT-PCR Technique - Primer Design DNA Reassociation Southern Blotting for DNA Analysis Northern Blotting for RNA Analysis Microarray Method

(General introduction to medicinal plants) their history – definition – development – environmental factors affecting the distribution of these plants – classification of medicinal, toxic, and aromatic plants – active and inactive substances in medicinal and aromatic plants – study of some medicinal and medicinal-aromatic plants in terms of original habitat – botanical description – active substances – medicinally used part – medical use – economic importance of medicinal plants – medicinal and toxic plants – domestication in medicinal and toxic plants (its causes and factors))

Graduation Project Guide for Students The graduation project is a scientific research that the student submits after completing the required number of hours in each department. One of the faculty members supervises it while the student prepares this project. The supervisor is chosen by the head of the department and follows up with the student throughout the preparation of this research, which spans two semesters.